Genetically Modified Organisms, (GMOs) Crops, Transgenic Animals, and Bioosafety Issues

Genetically Modified Organisms, or GMOs, are living organisms—plants, animals, or
microbes—whose genetic material has been artificially manipulated using genetic
engineering. This process involves altering specific genes to exhibit desired traits
such as pest resistance, faster growth, or higher nutrition. Unlike traditional breeding,
which mixes genes randomly, genetic modification allows scientists to insert a
specific gene from one organism into another—even across species barriers.
For example, inserting a gene from a bacterium into a plant to make it resistant to
insect pests. The most popular examples include Bt cotton and genetically
engineered insulin-producing bacteria.
This technology is widely used in agriculture, medicine, and research, and it holds
enormous potential for solving global challenges such as food security and disease
treatment.
Purpose and Benefits of Genetic Modification
The goal behind creating GMOs is to improve the quality of life. Here’s how:
 Agriculture: GMOs help increase crop yield, resist pests and diseases, and
tolerate drought or extreme weather.
 Health: In medicine, GMOs are used to produce vaccines, insulin, and other
life-saving drugs.
 Industry: They are also employed in biofuel production, waste
management, and enzyme production.
Benefits include:
 Higher productivity with less input.
 Reduced need for pesticides and fertilizers.
 Extended shelf life of produce.
 Enhanced nutritional content (e.g., Golden Rice enriched with Vitamin A).

However, the technology is not without controversy. Some concerns include potential
health risks, environmental impacts, and ethical debates over tampering with natural
life forms
Bt Crops – A Detailed Insight
What Are Bt Crops?
Bt crops are genetically modified plants that produce a protein from the bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This bacterium naturally makes toxins harmful to specific
insects but is safe for humans and other animals.
The gene responsible for producing the Bt toxin is introduced into the crop’s DNA,
allowing the plant itself to produce the toxin. This makes the plant self-defensive
against certain pests, especially those in the order Lepidoptera, such as the cotton
bollworm.
How Bt Crops Work – The Bt Toxin Mechanism
Bt crops work by expressing a protein toxin that is harmful only to specific insects.
Here’s how:

1. The insect feeds on the plant.
2. The Bt toxin enters the insect’s gut, which has an alkaline pH.
3. In this alkaline environment, the inactive form of the toxin is converted into an
   active form.
4. The toxin binds to gut wall receptors, creating pores and causing the cells to
   burst.
5. The insect dies due to gut paralysis and starvation.
   This mechanism is highly specific, meaning it doesn’t affect non-target organisms
   like humans, animals, or beneficial insects.
   Examples of Bt Crops in India
    Bt Cotton: The most widely grown GMO crop in India. It significantly reduced
   bollworm infestations and pesticide use.
    Bt Brinjal: Developed but not commercially approved due to biosafety
   concerns.
    Bt Corn/Maize: Not yet approved for commercial cultivation in India, but used
   in other countries like the U.S.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Bt Crops

Advantages:
 Reduces pesticide usage.
 Increases yield and farmer profits.
 Environmentally friendly (less chemical runoff).
 Less labour-intensive for farmers.
Disadvantages:
 Pest resistance over time (superbugs).
 Biodiversity loss (harm to non-target species).
 High seed cost.
 Ethical and regulatory concerns.
Bt crops have become a symbol of the GMO debate, balancing promise with caution.
Transgenic Animals Explained
What Are Transgenic Animals?
Transgenic animals are those whose DNA has been modified to carry genes from
other species. These genes, known as transgenes, are inserted into the animal’s
genome using advanced techniques. These animals are usually created for
research, agriculture, or pharmaceutical purposes.
Common examples:
 Glow-in-the-dark mice (with jellyfish genes for research).
 Transgenic sheep and goats that produce human proteins in their milk.
 Knockout mice (used to study gene function and human diseases).

Techniques Used to Create Transgenic Animals
Several techniques are used to produce transgenic animals, such as:

1. Microinjection: Inserting a foreign gene directly into the male pronucleus
   of a fertilized egg.
2. Embryonic stem cell transfer: Inserting DNA into stem cells which are
   then incorporated into a developing embryo.
3. Retroviral vectors: Using modified viruses to introduce genes into host
   DNA.
   These methods help scientists control how and where a gene is expressed in the
   animal’s body.

Applications of Transgenic Animals
 Research: Study of gene functions and diseases like cancer, Alzheimer’s,
etc.
 Pharmaceuticals: “Pharming” uses animals to produce human proteins
(e.g., insulin, growth hormones).
 Xenotransplantation: Organ development in pigs for human transplants.
 Agriculture: Faster-growing fish, disease-resistant livestock.
Transgenic animals are essential tools in modern biotechnology, providing insights
and innovations that were previously impossible.
Ethical and Safety Concerns
Despite their benefits, transgenic animals raise many ethical issues:
 Animal welfare: Genetic modifications may cause suffering or deformities.
 Playing God: Interfering with natural species is controversial.
 Environmental impact: Accidental release of transgenic animals can
disrupt ecosystems.
 Food safety: Some people fear health risks from eating products derived
from transgenic animals.
Strict regulations and biosafety assessments are essential to address these
concerns
Biosafety Issues in Biotechnology
What is Biosafety?
Biosafety refers to the precautions and strategies implemented to ensure that the
use of biotechnology, especially genetic engineering, does not cause harm to human
health, animals, plants, or the environment. As GMOs and transgenic organisms
become more widespread, the importance of controlling and managing their impact
becomes critical.

Imagine creating a plant that resists pests—great, right? But what if this plant affects
non-target organisms or becomes a superweed? Biosafety ensures such unintended
consequences are minimized. It deals with containment, risk assessment, and
management protocols that govern how genetically modified materials are handled
and used.

Need for Biosafety Guidelines
The rise of GMOs and transgenic technology demands strict guidelines because:
 Unpredictable results: Genetic changes may cause unexpected
interactions or mutations.
 Environmental risks: GMOs might crossbreed with wild species, leading
to loss of biodiversity.
 Health concerns: There’s a possibility of allergic reactions or toxin
production.
 Ethical implications: Modifying genes touches on moral issues involving
natural balance and integrity.
In India, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has laid down comprehensive rules
under the “Rules for the Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of
Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989,”
under the Environment Protection Act.
Institutions Involved in Biosafety Regulation (e.g., GEAC)
Several regulatory bodies in India manage the biosafety and approval of genetically
modified products:

1. GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee):
   o Operates under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
   Change.
   o Approves large-scale use and commercial release of GMOs.
2. RCGM (Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation):
   o Overseen by the Department of Biotechnology.
   o Evaluates safety aspects during lab research stages.
3. IBSC (Institutional Biosafety Committee):
   o Present in all research institutions dealing with GMOs.

o Handles internal assessment and reporting.

These institutions work in coordination to ensure safe, ethical research and
deployment of biotechnology in India.

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
The Cartagena Protocol is an international agreement aimed at ensuring the safe
handling, transport, and use of GMOs, especially those that cross borders. It was
adopted in 2000 under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Key features:
 Precautionary principle: If there is doubt about the safety of a GMO,
better not to approve it.
 Informed consent: Countries must be informed before exporting GMOs to
them.
 Risk assessment: Every GMO must be evaluated for environmental and
health risks.
India is a signatory to this protocol and follows its principles in its biosafety
regulations. The protocol emphasizes transparency, public participation, and
international cooperation.
Biopiracy and Patents
What is Biopiracy?
Biopiracy is the unethical or unauthorized use of biological resources, particularly by
companies or countries from the developed world, without proper compensation to
the native communities or nations that originally cultivated or discovered them.
A common example is when a pharmaceutical company patents a herbal remedy
traditionally used by Indian tribes without sharing any benefits with the locals. It’s like
stealing knowledge and making profits off someone else’s heritage.
Biopiracy is a global issue, especially in biodiversity-rich countries like India, Brazil,
and African nations.
Famous Cases of Biopiracy (e.g., Neem, Basmati)
India has been a frequent target of biopiracy. Here are some landmark cases:
 Neem:

o The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) has been used for centuries in
India for its antibacterial and insecticidal properties.
o A US-based company tried to patent neem-based pesticides.
o India fought back, and the European Patent Office cancelled the
patent.
 Basmati Rice:
o A US company named RiceTec patented a strain of Basmati rice.
o India argued that Basmati is a traditional variety and not a new
invention.
o The patent was eventually revoked after legal pressure.
 Turmeric:
o Two Indian-origin scientists in the US patented turmeric’s wound-
healing property.
o India challenged the claim, providing ancient texts as evidence.
o The patent was cancelled.

These cases highlight the need for protecting indigenous knowledge and resources.
What is a Patent in Biotechnology?
A patent is a legal right granted to inventors that allows them to exclude others from
making, using, or selling an invention for a certain period, usually 20 years.
In biotechnology, patents can be granted for:
 Genetically modified organisms.
 DNA sequences.
 Biotech processes and products (e.g., insulin-producing bacteria).
Many countries, including India, have limitations:
 Patents are not granted for naturally occurring substances.
 Discoveries (not inventions) aren’t patentable.
 Traditional knowledge is protected under Indian law.
India uses a database called the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) to
prevent biopiracy.

Ethical Issues Related to Patenting Life Forms
Patent laws have sparked intense debates:
 Moral concerns: Should life be owned?
 Access issues: Patented seeds and medicines can become too
expensive.
 Benefit sharing: Indigenous communities often don’t get their fair share.
 Research limitations: Excessive patents may block innovation.
There’s a thin line between encouraging innovation and exploiting nature. The goal
should be to balance commercial interests with ethical responsibility and fairness.

H2: NEET Previous Year Questions with Answers
�� NEET 2024
Q1. Given below are two statements:
 Statement I: Bt toxins are insect-group specific and coded by gene cry1Ac.
 Statement II: Bt toxin exists as inactive protoxin in B. thuringiensis, and after
ingestion by insects it converts to active form due to acidic pH of insect gut.
Options:

1. Both false
2. I true, II false
3. I false, II true
4. Both true
   ✅ Answer: 2 (I true, II false)
   Explanation: Statement I is correct; cry1Ac gene is insect-specific. However,
   activation occurs at alkaline, not acidic, gut pH.
   �� NEET 2023
   Q2. Which of the following fields has biopiracy?
   (a) Unauthorized development of biomaterials and not compensating communities
   (b) Patent law
   (c) GM labelling
   (d) Biosafety regulation

✅ Answer: (a) Biopiracy – refers to exploitation of genetic/taxonomic resources
without consent or benefit sharing.

�� NEET 2022
Q3. Which crop was patented by RiceTec and led to biopiracy allegations?
(a) Flavr Savr tomato
(b) Starlink maize
(c) Bt soybean
(d) Basmati rice
✅ Answer: (d) Basmati rice – RiceTec patented Basmati lines/grains, sparking
global controversy

�� NEET 2021
Q4. Consumption of which GM food helps in preventing vitamin A deficiency (night
blindness)?

1. Flavr Savr tomato
2. Canola
3. Golden Rice
4. Bt brinjal
   ✅ Answer: 3 – Golden Rice – biofortified with βcarotene to address vitamin A
   deficiency.

�� NEET 2020
Q5. The first GM food approved for commercial sale was:

1. Flavr Savr tomato
2. Aqua salmon
3. Bt brinjal
4. Golden Rice
   ✅ Answer: 1 – Flavr Savr tomato – introduced in the 1990s as the first GM food
   commercialized.
   �� NEET 2018

Q6. Laws and regulations to prevent unauthorised exploitation of bioresources are
termed:
(a) Biopatenting
(b) Bioethics
(c) Bioengineering
(d) Biopiracy
✅ Answer: (d) Biopiracy – protection against bioresource exploitation.
�� NEET 2016
Q7. Transgenic animals are genetically modified to:

1. Decrease susceptibility to diseases for research
2. Produce medically useful substances
3. Decrease growth rate to study development
4. Reproduce asexually for uniformity
   ✅ Answer: 1, 2, 3 (not 4) – transgenics used in disease models, pharma-
   production, and developmental biology.